Feminism in India

Feminism in India  is a set of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for Indian women.It is the pursuit of  women's rights  within the society of  India. Like their feminist counterparts all over the world,  feminists  in India seek gender equality: the right to work for equal wages, the right to equal access to health and education, and equal political rights. [1]  Indian feminists also have fought against culture-specific issues within India's  patriarchal  society, such as  inheritance laws  and the practice of widow immolation known as  Sati.The history of feminism in India can be divided into three phases: the first phase, beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, initiated when male European colonists began to speak out against the social evils of Sati;[2]  the second phase, from 1915 to Indian independence, when Gandhi incorporated women's movements into the  Quit India movement  and independent women's organizations began to emerge;[3]  and finally, the third phase, post-independence, which has focused on fair treatment of women in the work force and right to political parity. 3] Despite the progress made by Indian feminist movements, women living in modern India still face many issues of discrimination. India's patriarchal culture has made the process of gaining land-ownership rights and access to education challenging. [4]  In the past two decades, there has also emerged a disturbing trend of  sex-selective abortion. [5]  To Indian feminists, these are seen as injustices worth struggling against. [6] As in the  West, there has been some criticism of feminist movements in India.They have especially been criticized for focusing too much on women already privileged, and neglecting the needs and representation of poorer or lower  caste  women. This has led to the creation of caste-specific feminist organizations and movements. [7] Contents  Ã‚  [hide]   * 1  Defining feminism in the Indian context * 2  History * 2. 1  First phase: 1850–1915 * 2. 2  Second Phase: 1915–1947 * 2. 3  Feminism: Post-1947 * 3  Issues * 3. 1  Birth ratio * 3. 2  Marriage * 4  Theology * 4. 1  Hindu feminism * 4.   Islamic feminism * 5  Impact * 5. 1  Employment * 5. 2  Globalization * 5. 3  Education * 5. 4  Modernization * 6  Notable Indian feminists * 7  See also * 8  References * 9  Further reading * 10  External links| ————————————————- [edit]Defining feminism in the Indian context Tribal widow and single women protesting in  Jawhar,  Maharashtra Women's role in Pre-colonial social structures reveals that feminism was theorized differently in India than in the West. 8]  In India, women’s issues first began to be addressed when the state commi ssioned a report on the status of women to a group of feminist researchers and activists. The report recognized the fact that in India, women were oppressed under a system of structural hierarchies and injustices. During this period, Indian feminists were influenced by the Western debates being conducted about violence against women. However, due to the difference in the historical and social culture of India, the debate in favor of Indian women had to be conducted creatively and certain Western ideas had to be rejected. 9]  Women’s issues began to gain an international prominence when the decade of 1975-1985 was declared the  United Nations Decade for Women. [2] Historical circumstances and values in India have caused feminists to develop a  feminism  that differs from Western feminism. For example, the idea of women as â€Å"powerful† is accommodated into patriarchal culture through religion,[10]  which has retained visibility in all sections of society. Th is has provided women with traditional â€Å"cultural spaces. Furthermore, in the West the notion of â€Å"self† rests in competitive  individualism  where people are described as â€Å"born free yet everywhere in chains. † In India the individual is usually considered to be just one part of the larger social  collective. Survival of the individual is dependent upon  cooperation, and  self-denial  for the greater good is valued. [10] Indian women negotiate survival through an array of oppressive patriarchal family structures: age, ordinal status, relationship to men through family of origin, marriage and procreation as well as patriarchal attributes.Examples of patriarchal attributes include:  dowry, siring sons etc. ,  kinship,  caste, community, village, market and the  state. It should however be noted that several communities in India, such as the  Nairs  of Kerala,  Shettys  of Mangalore, certain  Maratha  clans, and  Bengali   families exhibit matriarchal tendencies. In these communities, the head of the family is the oldest woman rather than the oldest man. Sikh  culture is also regarded as relatively  gender-neutral. 10][11] The heterogeneity of the Indian experience reveals that there are multiple patriarchies, contributing to the existence of multiple feminisms. Hence, feminism in India is not a singular theoretical orientation; it has changed over time in relation to historical and cultural realities, levels of consciousness, perceptions and actions of individual women, and women as a group. The widely used definition is â€Å"An awareness of women’s oppression and exploitation in society, at work and within the family, and conscious action by women and men to change this situation. [11]  Acknowledgingsexism  in daily life and attempting to challenge and eliminate it through  deconstructing  mutually exclusive notions of  femininity  and  masculinity  as  biologically de termined  categories opens the way towards an equitable society for both men and women. [11] The male and female dichotomy of polar opposites with the former oppressing the latter at all times is refuted in the Indian context because it was men who initiated  social reform movementsagainst various  social evils. Patriarchy is just one of the hierarchies. Relational hierarchies between women within the same family are more adverse.Here women are pitted against one another. Not all women are powerless at all times. [12] There have been intense debates within the Indian women's movements about the relationship between Western and Indian feminisms. Many Indian feminists simultaneously claim a specific â€Å"Indian† sensitivity as well as an international feminist solidarity with groups and individuals worldwide. [9][13]  The rise of liberal feminism in the West in the 1970s focused deeply on demands for equal opportunities in education and employment, as well as ending vi olence against women.To a large extent, the emerging feminist movement in India was influenced by Western ideals. These called for education and equal rights, but also adapted their appeals to local issues and concerns, such as dowry-related violence against women,  Sati, sex selective abortion and custodial rape. Some Indian feminists have suggested that these issues are not specifically â€Å"Indian† in nature but rather a reflection of a wider trend of patriarchal oppression of women. [9] ————————————————- [edit]History Kamini Roy  (poet and suffragette) became the first woman Honors Graduate in India in 1886.Unlike the Western feminist movement, India’s movement was initiated by men, and later joined by women. The efforts of these men included abolishing sati, which was a widow's death by burning on her husband's funeral pyre,[2][14]  the custom of child marriage, abolishing the disfiguring of widows, banning the marriage of upper caste  Hindu  widows, promoting women’s education, obtaining legal rights for women to own property, and requiring the law to acknowledge women’s status by granting them basic rights in matters such as adoption. 15] The 19th century was the period that saw a majority of women's issues come under the spotlight and reforms began to be made. Much of the early reforms for Indian women were conducted by men. However, by the late 19th century they were joined in their efforts by their wives, sisters, daughters, protegees and other individuals directly affected by campaigns such as those carried out for women's education. By the late 20th century, women gained greater autonomy through the formation of independent women's own organizations.By the late thirties and forties a new narrative began to be constructed regarding â€Å"women's activism†. This was newly researched and expanded with the vision to create ‘logical' and organic links between feminism and Marxism, as well as with anti-communalism and anti-casteism, etc. The Constitution of India did guarantee ‘equality between the sexes,' which created a relative lull in women's movements until the 1970s. [3] During the formative years of women's rights movements, the difference between the sexes was more or less taken for granted in that their roles, functions, aims and desires were different.As a result, they were not only to be reared differently but treated differently also. Over the course of time, this difference itself became a major reason for initiating women's movements. Early 19th century reformers argued that the difference between men and women was no reason for the subjection of women in society. However, later reformers were of the opinion that indeed it was this particular difference that subjugated women to their roles in society, for example, as mothers. Therefore, there was a ne ed for the proper care of women's rights.With the formation of women's organizations and their own participation in campaigns, their roles as mothers was again stressed but in a different light: this time the argument was for women's rights to speech, education and emancipation. However, the image of women with the mother as a symbol underwent changes over time – from an emphasis on family to the creation of an archetypal mother figure, evoking deep, often  atavistic  images. [3] [edit]First phase: 1850–1915 The colonial venture into  modernity  brought concepts of  democracy,  equality  and individual  rights.The rise of the concept of  nationalism  and introspection of discriminatory practices brought about social reform movements related to caste and gender relations. This first phase of feminism in India was initiated by men to uproot the  social evils  of  sati  (widow immolation),[16]  to allow widow remarriage, to forbid child marri age, and to reduce illiteracy, as well as to regulate the age of consent and to ensure property rights through legal intervention. In addition to this, some upper caste Hindu women rejected constraints they faced under Brahminical traditions. 3]  However, efforts for improving the status of women in Indian society were somewhat thwarted by the late nineteenth century, as nationalist movements emerged in India. These movements resisted ‘colonial interventions in gender relations’ particularly in the areas of family relations. In the mid to late nineteenth century, there was a national form of resistance to any colonial efforts made to ‘modernize’ the Hindu family. This included the Age of Consent controversy that erupted after the government tried to raise the age of marriage for women. 2][17] [edit]Second Phase: 1915–1947 Women's procession during Quit India Movement in 1942 During this period the struggle against colonial rule intensified. Nationa lism became the pre-eminent cause. Claiming Indian superiority became the tool of cultural revivalism resulting in an essentializing model of Indian womanhood similar to that of  Victorian  womanhood: special yet separated from public space. Gandhi  legitimized and expanded Indian women’s public activities by initiating them into the non-violent  civil disobedience  movement against theBritish Raj.He exalted their feminine roles of caring, self-abnegation, sacrifice and tolerance; and carved a niche for those in the public arena. Women-only organizations like  All India Women's Conference  (AIWC) and the  National Federation of Indian Women  (NFIW) emerged. Women were grappling with issues relating to the scope of women’s political participation,  women’s franchise, communal awards, and leadership roles in  political parties. [3] The 1920s was a new era for Indian women and is defined as ‘feminism’ that was responsible for the creation of localized women’s associations.These associations emphasized women’s education issues, developed livelihood strategies for working class women, and also organized national level women’s associations such as the All India Women’s Conference. AIWC was closely affiliated with the Indian National Congress. Under the leadership of  Mahatma Gandhi, it worked within the nationalist and anti-colonialist freedom movements. This made the mass mobilization of women an integral part of Indian nationalism. Women therefore were a very important part of various nationalist and anti-colonial efforts, including the civil disobedience movements in the 1970s. 3] After independence, the All India Women’s Conference continued to operate and in 1954 the Indian Communist Party formed its own women’s wing known as the National Federation of Indian Women. However, feminist agendas and movements became less active right after India’s 1947 indepen dence, as the nationalist agendas on nation building took precedence over feminist issues. [18] Women’s participation in the struggle for freedom developed their critical consciousness about their role and rights in  independent India. This resulted in the introduction of the franchise and civic rights of women in the Indian constitution.There was provision for women’s upliftment through  affirmative action, maternal health and child care provision (creches), equal pay for equal work etc. The state adopted a patronizing role towards women. For example, India’s constitution states that women are a â€Å"weaker section† of the population, and therefore need assistance to function as equals. [15]  Thus women in India did not have to struggle for basic rights as did women in the West. The utopia ended soon when the social and cultural ideologies and structures failed to honor the newly acquired concepts of fundamental rights and democracy. 3] [edit]Femi nism: Post-1947 Post independence feminists began to redefine the extent to which women were allowed to engage in the workforce. Prior to independence, most feminists accepted the sexual divide within the labor force. However, feminists in the 1970s challenged the inequalities that had been established and fought to reverse them. These inequalities included unequal wages for women, relegation of women to ‘unskilled' spheres of work, and restricting women as a reserve army for labor.In other words, the feminists' aim was to abolish the free service of women who were essentially being used as cheap capital. [3]  Feminist class-consciousness also came into focus in the 1970s, with feminists recognizing the inequalities not just between men and women but also within power structures such as caste, tribe, language, religion, region, class etc. This also posed as a challenge for feminists while shaping their overreaching campaigns as there had to be a focus within efforts to ensur e that fulfilling the demands of one group would not create further inequalities for another.Now, in the early twenty-first century, the focus of the Indian feminist movement has gone beyond treating women as useful members of society and a right to parity, but also having the power to decide the course of their personal lives and the right of self-determination. [3] ————————————————- [edit]Issues Despite â€Å"on-paper† advancements, many problems still remain which inhibit women from fully taking advantage of new rights and opportunities in India. There are many traditions and customs that have been an important part of Indian culture for hundreds of years.Religious laws and expectations, or â€Å"personal laws† enumerated by each specific religion, often conflict with the Indian Constitution, eliminating rights and powers women should legally have. Despite these crossovers in legality, the Indian government does not interfere with religion and the personal laws they hold. [19]  Religions, like Hinduism, call for women to be faithful servants to God and their husbands. They have a term called  pativrata  that describes a wife who has accepted service and devotion to her husband and her family as her ultimate religion and duty.Indian society is largely composed of hierarchical systems within families and communities. These  hierarchies  can be broken down into age, sex, ordinal position, kinship relationships (within families), and caste, lineage, wealth, occupations, and relationship to ruling power (within the community). When hierarchies emerge within the family based on social convention and economic need, girls in poorer families suffer twice the impact of vulnerability and stability. From birth, girls are automatically entitled to less; from playtime, to food, to education, girls can expect to always be entitled to less than their brothers.Girls also have less access to their family’s income and assets, which is exacerbated among poor, rural Indian families. From the start, it is understood that females will be burdened with strenuous work and exhausting responsibilities for the rest of their lives, always with little to no compensation or recognition. [20] India is also a  patriarchal  society, which, by definition, describes cultures in which males as fathers or husbands are assumed to be in charge and the official heads of households.A  patrilinealsystem governs the society, where descent and inheritance are traced through the male line and men are generally in control of the distribution of family resources. [12] These traditions and ways of Indian life have been in effect for so long that this type of lifestyle is what women have become accustomed to and expect. Indian women often do not take full advantage of their constitutional rights because they are not properly aware or inf ormed of them. Women also tend to have poor utilization of voting rights because they possess low levels of political awareness and sense of political efficacy.Women are not often encouraged to become informed about issues. Due to this, political parties do not invest much time in female candidates because there is a perception that they are a â€Å"wasted investment. â€Å"[15] The female-to-male ratio in India is 933 to 1000, showing that there are numerically fewer women in the country than men. This is due to several factors, including  infanticides, most commonly among female infants, and the poor care of female infants and childbearing women. Although outlawed, infanticides are still highly popular in rural India, and are continuing to become even more prominent.This is due to the fact, most especially in rural areas, that families cannot afford female children because of the  dowry  they must pay when their daughter gets married. Like infanticide, the payment of dowry is also  illegal, but is still a frequent and prevalent occurrence in rural India. [21]  Women are considered to be â€Å"worthless† by their husbands if they are not â€Å"able† to produce a male child, and can often face much abuse if this is the case. [22] [edit]Birth ratio Between the years of 1991 to 2001, the female-male ratio of the population of India fell from 94. 5 girls per 100 boys to 92. girls per 100 boys. [5]  Some parts of the country, such as  Kerala, did not experience such a decline, but in the richer Indian states of  Punjab,  Haryana,  Gujarat, and  Maharashtra, the female-male ratio fell very sharply (the female-male ratios in these states were between 79. 3 and 87. 8). [5]  This is evidence of natality inequality, and an indication that  sex-selective abortion  has become more pervasive. The Indian parliament has banned the use of sex determination techniques for fetuses due to this, but enforcement of this law has been lar gely ignored. [23] [edit]MarriageMost of the average Indian woman's life is spent in marriage; many women are still married before the legal age of 18, and the incidence of non-marriage is low in India. Childbearing and raising children are the priorities of early adulthood for Indian women. Thus, if they enter the workforce at all, it is far later than Indian men. Urban Indian men reach the peak of their labor force participation between the ages of 25 and 29, while urban Indian women do so between the ages of 40 and 44. [4]  Because of this, women have less time for the acquisition of skills and fewer opportunities for job improvements.There is a poor representation of women in the Indian workforce. Females have a ten percent higher drop-out rate than males from middle and primary schools, as well as lower levels of literacy than men. Since unemployment is also high in India, it is easy for employers to manipulate the law, especially when it comes to women, because it is part of Indian culture for women not to argue with men. Additionally, labor unions are insensitive to women’s needs. Women also have to settle for jobs that comply with their obligations as wives, mothers, and homemakers. [4][21] ————————————————- edit]Theology [edit]Hindu feminism In the  Hindu  religion, there has been partial success in terms of gender equality reform laws and family law. While this is a major advancement relative to other religions in India, it is still not a complete triumph in terms of feminism and relieving oppression. [19]  Gandhi  came up with the term  stree shakti  (women power) for the concept of womanhood. In the Hindu religion, Gods are not exclusively male. Hinduism sheds a positive light on femininity; females are considered to compliment and complete their male counterparts.It is important to note that the deities of both knowl edge and wealth are female. [15] There has been some criticism from  Dalit  groups that Indian feminism tends to represent â€Å"upper caste† and upper class Hindu women, while ignoring and marginalizing the interests of Dalit women. Debates on caste and gender oppression have been furthered by  Other Backward Class  (OBC) members of different political parties, arguing in state assemblies that â€Å"lower caste† women's interests are best represented by women from these castes. 7]  Working towards this end, women within Dalit castes have formed organizations such as the All India Dalit Women's Forum and the National Federation of Dalit Women and Dalit Solidarity, which focus on the gendered implications of caste based violence and oppression, such as the ways in which Dalit women suffer from urban poverty and displacement. [7] [edit]Islamic feminism The Hindu and Muslim communities in India were treated differently by the government in that separate types of concessions were made for each community in order to accommodate their separate religious laws and regulations.The case of  Shah Bano  begun in 1985 was one such example of  Rajiv Gandhi  attempting to make â€Å"concessions† for the Muslim community to in turn secure support for the Congress. Shah Bano, a 73-year-old Muslim woman, was divorced by her husband after forty-three years of marriage. According to the Sharia or Muslim Law, her husband was not required to pay her alimony. Shah Bano challenged this decision in the Supreme Court, which ultimately ruled in her favor and ordered her husband to pay her a monthly maintenance allowance.This caused chaos amongst the Muslim clerics who denounced the judgement and suggested that their religion, Islam was under attack in the country. In a fear of losing overall Muslim support, Rajiv succumbed to the pressures of the Muslim community and his own party and backed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Bill t hat overruled the Supreme Court's decision. This caused an outcry from Hindu nationalists who found the appeasement of minorities by the Congress for political purposes wrong and opportunistic. 24] Feminism was challenged by various minority groups for not entirely addressing the needs of minority populations. It was suggested that ‘mainstream' feminism was upper caste and Hindu in its orientation and did not address the concerns of minority women. This led to the formation of the Awaaz-e-Niswaan (The Voice of Women) in 1987 in Mumbai in largely Muslim part of the city. The Muslim community has been subjected to personal laws that often were considered harmful to the rights of Muslim women. [25] ————————————————- [edit]ImpactWestern-educated Indians introduced  equality  in the early nineteenth century. However, the term did not gain meaning or become an operatio nal principle in Indian life until the country gained independence in 1947 and adopted a democratic government. [15]  The  Indian Constitution  then granted equality, freedom from discrimination based on gender or religion, and guaranteed religious freedoms. [19]  Also, seven  five-year plans  were developed to provide health, education, employment, and welfare to women. The sixth five-year plan even declared women â€Å"partners in development. [15] [edit]Employment In general in the uneducated and rural section of the Indian society, which forms a major percentage of the total population, women are seen as economic burdens. Their contributions to productivity are mostly invisible as their familial and domestic contributions are unfairly overlooked. Indian women were contributing nearly 36 percent of total employment in agriculture and related activities, nearly 19 percent in the service sector, and nearly 12. 5 in the industry sector as of the year 2000.The unfortunat e reality is that the high illiteracy rate among women confines them to lower paying, unskilled jobs with less job security than men. Even in agricultural jobs where the work of men and women are highly similar, women are still more likely to be paid less for the same amount and type of work as men. [26]  However in the urban section of Indian society, women are empowered with laws such as IPC 498a which are heavily biased against the men in the society. Educated women are sometimes accused of using such laws to unleash legal terrorism on husbands by disgruntled wives. 24] [edit]Globalization Feminists are also concerned about the impact of globalization on women in India. Some feminists argue that globalization has led to economic changes that have raised more social and economical challenges for women, particularly for working class and lower caste women. Multinational companies in India have been seen to exploit the labor of ‘young, underpaid and disadvantaged womenâ€⠄¢ in free trade zones and sweat shops, and use â€Å"Young lower middle class, educated women,† in call centers.These women have few effective labor rights, or rights to collective action. [27][28] In addition to this, multinational corporations are seen to advertise a homogenous image of ideal women across the country is argued to cause an increase in the commodification of women’s bodies. This is also manifested in the form of nationalist pride exhibited through Indian women winning international beauty pageants. According to some feminists, such developments have offered women greater sexual autonomy and more control over their bodies.However, many other feminists feel that such commodification of female bodies has only served the purpose of feeding to male fantasies. [27] [edit]Education Girls in Kalleda Rural School,  Andhra Pradesh. Some of the main reasons that girls are less likely to reach optimal levels of education include the fact that girls are needed t o assist their mothers at home, have been raised to believe that a life of domestic work is their destined occupation, have illiterate mothers who cannot educate their children, have an economic dependency on men, and are sometimes subject to child-marriage. 26] In 1986, the  National Policy on Education  (NPE) was created in India, and the government launched the program called  Mahila Samakhya, whose focus was on the empowerment of women. The program’s goal is to create a learning environment for women to realize their potential, learn to demand information and find the knowledge to take charge of their own lives. In certain areas of India, progress is being made and an increase in the enrollment of girls in schools and as teachers has begun to increase.By 2001 literacy for women had exceeded 50% of the overall female population, though these statistics were still very low compared to world standards and even male literacy within India. [29]  Efforts are still being made to improve the level of education that females receive to match that of male students. [26] [edit]Modernization Modern influences are affecting the younger generations in parts of India, where girls are beginning to forgo the more traditional ways of Indian life and break gender stereotypes.In more flourishing parts of the country, the idea of â€Å"dating,† or more specifically  openly  dating, has come into play, and the terms â€Å"girlfriend† and â€Å"boyfriend† are being used. Some women have landed highly respectable careers, and can be seen across  Bollywood  billboards and advertisements. However, this is not the norm throughout the country; such modernizations and the women behind them face serious resistance from anti-liberalists. The country is still severely male-dominant and unwelcoming to such movements that go against sex and gender traditions in India. Hasselrlis, Kaj. â€Å"Making a Statement. †Ã‚  Herizons  23. 2 (2009): 33-35.

Competitive Bidding Essay

Introduction An open and competitive procurement procedure begins with the promoter’s description of its requirements and an invitation to suppliers to indicate their interest in the contract and their professional capacity to fulfil it. The promoter then identifies potential suppliers and invites them to submit bids. After the bidding phase, most procurement systems require a public declaration of the competitors’ names and their bid prices and, ultimately, of the successful bidder. There is a wide variety of procurement procedures available for use in tendering when it comes to PPP arrangements. Many of these procedures have become prescriptive in nature. Many local governments follow standard procurement procedures drawn up by the International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC). However, most commonly PPP contracts are awarded as the result of some form of competitive bidding procedure. Designing a competitive bidding process – and getting the best possible result – is easiest when the product or service required is a fairly standard one and the technical outputs can be defined with reasonable certainty in the bidding documents. Particular attention, therefore, should be paid to providing good quality information to potential bidders and to the detailed design of the bidding process. Defining the procurement process Some initial decisions need to be made regarding the procurement and the bid evaluation process. It includes: Qualifying criteria for the evaluation and selection of shortlisted bidders Process for submission and evaluation Details of pre-submission conference or meeting and of other opportunities to ask questions or seek clarifications Indicative procurement schedule Other general instructions to applicants Application forms (as annexes) The choice of procurement method will depend on the government’s budget, capacity, desire to encourage innovation, need for high-level inputs, vulnerability to corruption, and objectives of the ppp project. Three main options, distinguished by the level of competition they create, are available: 1. Unsolicited proposals or direct negotiations. 2. Competitive negotiation. 3. Competitive bidding. Unsolicited proposals or direct negotiations When confronted with a unsolicited proposal, the government has three options: Direct negotiation to the offer.  Purchase the project concept then competitively tender among a range of bidders. Offer original proponent a predefined advantage in recognition of the value of the original proposal(bonus system)and open up bidding. Entering into a sole-source process can save government time and money and may alert government to an unrealized opportunity for ppp. However, sole-sourcing can encourage corruption through lack of transparency, and the cost benefits to competitive bidding are lost. Competitive negotiation. Competitive negotiation entail inviting a small group of bidders to a structured negotiation. The bidders are aware of the presence of the other bidders and there is pressure to obtain the best price. This arrangement is quicker and less expensive than full competitive process and can yield good prices. A time consuming procurement process may be seen as an opportunity cost to the private sector. This needs to be weighted against the degree of and value to transparency. 1. Competitive negotiations, another option of competitive bidding which generally involve the following stages: The government specifies its service objectives, and requests proposals from private operators for meeting these objectives. The government reviews the proposals and selects those that are technically responsive to the request proposals. The government then negotiates contract terms and conditions with the selected bidders. 2. Competitive negotiations may involve simultaneous negotiations with the objective of awarding one contract, or they may result in the award of several contracts. 3. Competitive negotiations are well suited to project in which technical variations are possible, there is much scope for innovation, and it would be difficult to secure project financing on the basis of standardized contract document. Advantages of competitive negotiations They permit bidders to be more creative and innovative. They reduce the incentive for bidders to deliberately underbid in order to win projects. They offer a richer means of screening bidders than price alone. Disadvantages Bids can be difficult to compare. Competition is less transparent than with competitive bidding. Competitive bidding process A competitive bidding process generally consists of: 1. public notification of the government’s intention to seek a private partner for the provision of, for example, water and sanitation services, including prequalification or a request for expressions of interest from private companies; 2. distribution of bidding documents and draft contracts to potential bidders; 3. a formal process for screening potential bidders and finalizing a list of qualified bidders; 4. a formal public process for presenting proposals, evaluating them, and selecting a winner. Different procedures for procurement include invitation to tender; and request for proposals (one- and two-stage processes). Formation of a Procurement Committee A Procurement Committee, often called a Tender Evaluation Committee, is formed for overseeing and conducting the bidding process. Typically, the Procurement Committee is formed with representatives from a number of MDAs with responsibility for the financial, legal and operational aspects of the project as well as the Bureau/Office of Public Procurement in order to have diversity and no one government group alone in charge of selecting the preferred bidder. The Committee appoints an in-house coordinator or an external consultant (Transaction Advisor) to manage the day-today aspects of the bidding process. However, the Procurement Committee itself (and not the coordinator or Transaction Advisor) is responsible for making the final determination of the preferred bidder. The Procurement Committee, in turn, could be divided into functional teams to focus on evaluation of specific aspects of the bidders’ proposals. For example, the Procurement Committee could have separate teams for undertaking technical review, legal review,  local preference review and financial review. The number of teams may depend upon the complexity of the project evaluation. Invitation to tender Generally, an invitation to tender is issued when the promoter knows exactly what it wants and how it wants to achieve its goals. Most often, the tender is issued and the lowest bidder is awarded the contract. Although this approach reduces the cost involved in developing a PPP, it may limit the promoter’s opportunities to view other, more efficient and/or more cost-effective options for delivery of the service. Request for proposals A request for proposals (RFP) is usually used when the promoter knows what it wants to achieve, but would like prospective partners to use their experience, technical capabilities and creativity to identify how the project objectives can best be met. One of the main differences between an RFP and an invitation to tender is that in an RFP the promoter is looking for value (that is, operating efficiency, cost-saving measures, innovations and so on), rather than the lowest bid. The request for proposals can be issued through either: a one-stage; or a two-stage process. The decision between having a single or a two-stage procedure for requesting proposals will depend on the nature of the contract, on how precisely the technical requirements can be defined and whether output results (or performance indicators) are used for selection of the contractor or concessionaire. If it is deemed both feasible and desirable for the contracting authority to formulate performance indicators or project specifications to the degree of precision or finality necessary, the selection may be structured as a single-stage process. In that case, after having concluded the pre-selection of bidders, the contracting authority would proceed directly to issuing a final request for proposals. Request for Expressions of Interest (RFEI) The RFEI is intended to provide the promoter with sufficient information to draft a clear RFP in cases when the local government has identified its  objectives, but may not have fully defined the project or service to be delivered. The use of an RFEI can assist in two ways: it reduces the time and expense involved in evaluating a larger number of proposals; and it improves the quality of proposals. In this sense, the RFEI is used to gain information to help in drafting the RFP. Request for Qualifications (RFQ) or Pre-qualification A RFQ is used in situations where the promoter and the project team have amore defined project, but do not know if there are any private sector partners with the resources, experience or interest to undertake the project. It is a step within a contract awarding procedure in which the party inviting the tenders selects the companies to participate in competitive bidding for the contract. To this end, potential participants in the competition are requested to submit information on their companies. The RFQ document is more specific than the RFEI document. In traditional government procurement it consists of the verification of certain formal requirements, such as adequate proof of technical capability or prior experience in the type of PPP, so that all bidders who meet the pre-selection criteria are admitted automatically to the tendering phase. Bidders should be required to demonstrate that they possess the professional and technical qualifications, financial and human resources, equipment and other physical facilities, managerial capacity, reliability and experience necessary to carry out the project. Qualification requirements should cover all phases of an infrastructure project, including financing, management, engineering, construction, operation and maintenance, where appropriate. Based on the pre-qualification results, a shortlist is drawn up of the companies eligible to compete. The bidders answer the RFQ with Expressions of Interest. The RFQ process is used as a â€Å"shortlisting† method to pre-qualify selected potential partners who will then receive the RFP. It is not designed to gain answers as to how the project will be completed. Depending on the pre-qualification requirements set out in the documents, different groups of companies will be selected. One recent trend is that pre-qualification requirements laid down by promoters such as local  governments have started to include not only the price and quality of the service they wish to procure, but also requests to address poverty, upgrade welfare and/or create employment opportunities. Often the bidding companies need to prove their recent experience with a previous assignment similar in nature and outcomes. Thus, the purpose of this stage is to enable the contracting authority to formulate its requirements in a manner that enables a final competition to be carried out on the basis of a single set of parameters. Put simply, this is an opportunity to ensure that in the final evaluation, the contracting authority is able to compare â€Å"apples to apples† rather than â€Å"apples to oranges.† Often local small businesses or community-based organizations are best suited to resolve a particular service delivery problem. In such cases, it is important not to leave the m out of the bidding process. One of the means through which this can be achieved is to simplify the tender documents. Obviously, pre-qualification, drafted without taking these potential bidders into account, could serve as an obstacle to the effective and innovative solutions to the existing problems. Meanwhile, the pre-qualifications can still be an effective mean pre-define the bidders for the RFP, when the criteria are correctly specified and weighted according to their value to the PPP project. Simplification of tender documentation The system of tender submission should not require too many forms of supporting information, which could be unnecessarily complicated for small businesses to complete satisfactorily. Besides, the administrative burden for smaller businesses in dealing with tender form requirements for government bodies is disproportionately greater and more expensive than for larger companies. Thus, the tender submission of documentation should be rationalized and simplified as far as possible to make it easier for small contractors to deal with the paperwork involved. However, this simplification of the documentation should not influence negatively the essence of the contract and the contractual obligations. Evaluation of Applications and Shortlisting of Bidders The applications are evaluated based on the technical and financial capabilities to implement the project as per the selection criteria given in  the RFQ. At this stage, the evaluation normally focuses on threshold criteria such that all proposals meeting the criteria are shortlisted for the next stage and all non-confirming proposals are rejected. A Pass/Fail approach is generally the preferred approach for evaluation of responses to the RFQ. However, a target number (3-5) of shortlisted bidders is usually preferred in order to ensure sufficient competition but not at the same time overcrowd the bidding process, and therefore sometimes only the highest qualifying firms will pass on to the full tender phase. If firms feel there are too many bidders, and thus the odds of winning are low, they will not participate in the full tender. Advantages of competitive bidding It ensures transparency. It provides a market mechanism for selecting the best proposal. It stimulates interests among a broad range of potential partners. It works best where outputs are standardized and all technical parameters can be clearly defined. It may encourage underbidding if renegotiation is possible later. The contract Regardless of the option selected, the essential elements to be included in a contract are: The parties to the agreement, Interpretation, sets forth the definitions of important terms and providing guidance on the interpretation of the contract’s provision’s: The scope, territorial jurisdiction and duration of the agreement, The objective of the contract, Circumstances of commencement, completion, modification and termination of contract; The rights and obligations of the contractor; The rights and obligations of the Government; The requirement for performance bonds to provide security for Government if the construction and service delivery falls below standards; Insurance requirements to provide security for the insurable matters; Government warranties; Private sector warranties: Consequence to a change in law; Service quality and performance and maintenance targets and schedules; The identification of regulatory authorities if any and the extent of their roles and authority; The responsibilities of the contractor and the Government with regard to capital expenditures; The form of remuneration of the contractor and how it will be covered, whether from fixed fee, fixed fee plus incentives or another arrangement; How key risks will be allocated and managed; The contractors right and responsibility with regard to passing through or entering public or private property; Reporting requirements; Procedures for measuring, monitoring and enforcing performance; Procedures for coordinating investment planning; Responsibility for environmental liabilities; Procedures for resolving disputes; Delay provisions describing what is and is not an excuse for a delay in construction and operations; Force majeure conditions and reactions; Procedures to be followed when either party to the PPP contract wishes to change any material portion of the contract; Indemnification circumstances; The right of each party to any intellectual property brought to the project or created during the project, including the steps to be taken to protect the intellectual property of third parties, such as information technology software manufacturers; Conflict of interests and dispute resolution; Description of the conditions under which either party may terminate the contract, the process to be undertaken in that regard, and the consequences to each party of a termination; The circumstances that may permit either the Government or any financial institution to â€Å"step in† to the contract to protect its rights under the PPP contract; Consequences of a change in the ownership or key personnel of the private partner; Mechanisms whereby the parties to the PPP contract will interact with each other going forward; Requirement that each party comply with all laws pertaining to the project, including obtainable environmental, zoning, planning and other permits; Conditions by which public sector employees are employed by the private sector contractor, including any restrictions on termination or redundancies for operational reasons; and Conditions precedent: describes any conditions  precedent to be fulfilled by either party before the contract takes effect. This list is i llustrative and does not capture every clause required in a contract. The final content of the contract will depend on the project scope, local legal requirement and precedent, and advice of legal advisors. It may include more elements as per demand of situation and size of the project. CONCLUSION PPP projects have lately become a popular operation model in public infrastructure development all over the world. Long-term contractual arrangements with PPPs change the traditional roles of the public and private sectors. Public sector bodies become clients and private sector bodies become service providers with a large responsibility of the project in question. PPP projects offer different kinds of benefits to both public and private parties. Both partnership parties also have different kinds of goals; however, the common goal is that both parties win. As the results in the text show, proactive law becomes relevant in contract law and contracting. Practicing proactive contracting requires more planning of legal relations. The goal is to prevent difficult future situations and avoid problems. Proactive contracting emphasizes contract preparation. That is why, for example, issues and questions concerning risks, risk management and creative contractual mechanisms play a significant role. In business relations, proactive contracting invites and gathers different professions to participate in a new type of co-operation. A common language has to be found, for example, between the people in companies with technical, financial, and legal backgrounds. In this way, it is possible to assess the possible risks and other critical contractual questions in the contract preparation phase. A partnership mindset is essential in PPP projects. A client and a project company form the main contractual relationship in terms of PPP projects. In addition to this, for example, a project company has several contracts with subcontractors. These partnerships are complex contractual relationships in which trust plays a big role. Co-operation requires constant care in the form of communication and reciprocal trust to strengthen it. Trust is achieved by th e companies and public sector representatives binding themselves to shared goals. Furthermore, once strong  trust has been built and established, firms may enjoy lower costs than those without such trust. In the business context, trust seems to be based partly on economic calculations and partly on the trusting party’s basic values as a human being. Each PPP project consists of several different contracts, so that they are actually a bundle of contracts. These contracts cover, for example, construction, financing, and services. PPP projects are long-term and very complex contractual arrangements which require careful and time-consuming preparation and negotiations. Dozens of different risks exist as well. As regards risks with PPP projects, the proactive way is the only reasonable way to handle and allocate them. This requires investments from the parties. As the results in the text show, changing circumstances play a significant role in long-term contracts and, for instance, in PPP projects in terms of contract law. It is sensible for the parties to prep are for changing circumstances. This requires proactive mindset and actions. In practice, this means that parties have to create flexible contractual mechanisms for contracts so that they can respond to possible changing circumstances in the future. These mechanisms can be, e.g. clauses concerning changes in official regulations and legislation, hardship, renegotiations, and force majeure. As the results in the text show, in Finnish PPP projects and their contractual arrangements, tailored contract clauses, insurances, securities, and guarantees have been used as tools for managing and allocating risks. It has also been noted that the most problematic situations arise when risks are not individualized. Problems also occur when a risk is individualized but the risk-bearing party is not determined. Proactive law and risk management play significant roles in PPP projects. Moreover, tailored contract clauses and mechanisms also have a great significance.

The Global Financial Crisis and the Imf

Table of Contents 1. 0 Objectives2 2. 0 Introduction2 3. 0 Types of Financial Crisis2 3. 0. 1 Banking Crisis2 3. 0. 2 Speculative Bubble3 3. 0. 3 International Crisis3 4. 0 Causes of the Financial Crisis 2007-20083 4. 0. 1 Loose Monetary Policy. 3 4. 0. 2 Global Imbalances. 4 4. 0. 3 Credit Boom. 5 4. 0. 4 Asset Bubble. 5 4. 0. 5 Financial Innovation5 5. 0 Impact of Financial Crisis6 5. 0. 1 Impact to U. S Financial System. 6 5. 0. 2 Economic Growth Rates. 6 5. 0. 3 Personal Finances of US Citizens. 7 5. 0. 4 High Unemployment Rate. 5. 0. 5 Impact on the IMF9 6. 0 Policy Response9 6. 0. 1 Term Auction Facility (TAF). 9 6. 0. 2 Economic Stimulus Act 2008. 10 6. 0. 3 Initial Cuts in Interest Rate. 11 7. 0 IMF Response to the Crisis12 8. 0 Conclusion14 9. 0 References15 1. 0 Objectives Objective of this topic is to giving a scope about the recent global financial crisis 2007 which discussing about the causes and impacts of the crisis and focusing mainly in the United States. Then, it wi ll focus on the policy response of the country towards the crisis.Role of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) is also given attention to understand how it works as the ‘international lender of last resort’. 2. 0 Introduction Financial institutions which play an important role in the economy, act as intermediaries between borrowers and lenders. Channelling of funds to individuals or firm that have bright investment opportunities takes place in the financial markets. Without financial intermediaries, it is difficult for companies to operate business. The economy also cannot operate efficiently if the financial system does not perform the role well.Systematic risk is a risk that could be failures of financial institution that freezing up capital market and eventually reduces the supply of capital to the economy. The United States experienced this systematic failure during 2007 and continues to struggle its consequences until 2009. Financial crisis occur when an economic encounter recession or depression caused by lack of liquidity in financial institution. In this circumstances, financial institutions lose huge part of their value. Financial crisis is not the same as economic crisis which affect the entire economy.A financial crisis can occur in a single sector and not always affect other sectors. The causes of financial crisis are different with the type of crisis. The financial crisis 2007-2008 started in August 2007 as a subprime mortgage crisis concentrated in the United States. The crisis became global but originally started in the financial sector of the United States and soon became global economic crisis. Mostly economies in the world were affected by this crisis because the United States economy can be thought as powerful economy in the world. 3. 0 Types of Financial Crisis . 0. 1 Banking Crisis Banks normally function by providing deposit accounts to people who want to make savings and it can be withdraw anytime. The banks then use these deposits to make loans and charge interest to borrower which are paid over a long period of time. If all the depositors want to withdraw money at one time, the banks will face lack of cash flow and will be bankrupt. This situation is called banking crisis. 3. 0. 2 Speculative Bubble Some people buy stock by speculating the price, hoping that price of the stock will increase in the future.Therefore, if most investor buy stock speculatively, chances that the stock price will increase are be very high. When all the investors want to sell at the same time, then the price will likely to fall. When price of a stock is more than its current price plus dividends and interest, then the stock is said to show a bubble. 3. 0. 3 International Crisis This crisis occurs when a country is forced to devalue its currency. This can happen either because of speculative attack or a country is default in paying its debt. When this occurs, all countries that were trading with this country will be affected .Investors also will lose the value of their investment because the currency has been devalued to lower rate. 4. 0 Causes of the Financial Crisis 2007-2008 4. 0. 1 Loose Monetary Policy. Monetary policy implemented by the Federal Reserve plays an important role in determining the interest rate. It is believed that loose or weak monetary policy implemented by the U. S Federal Reserve is among the cause to the crisis. After the internet or dotcom bubble in 2000, loose monetary policy is applied by the U. S Federal Reserve. The federal funds rate dropped from 5. 8% in January 2001 to 1. 73% in January 2002 and remained low for several years as shown in chart 1. This policy thus encourage U. S consumption, reduced savings and created high current account deficit. The Federal Reserve had made mistake by its decision to keep the federal funds rate too low for too long. The policy therefore responsible for creating the credit boom and housing bubble. In other words, with a low federal fund s target, banks take advantage on cheap funding and made cheap loans available. From year 2000 to 2006, total debt outstanding for the U.S has increased by $13. 5 trillion. The debt to GDP ratio is increased to 350%. This high level of debt made firms and households more exposed to adverse economic shock. Other than that, the Federal Reserve and regulators made mistake in the failure to control the poor underwriting standards in the mortgage markets. The poor underwriting practices can be seen through no down payments, no verification of income, asset and occupation by borrowers. Credit that was widely available suggested poorer loan quality. Chart 1: Loose monetary policy Source: Adapted from The EconomistChart 1 shows that the actual interest rate fell below the Taylor rule, that is the interest rate what historical experience suggest policy should be adapted. The line slopped downward to 1 percent in 2003 to 2004 and then rises until 2006. The Taylor rule line shows what interest rate would have be if the Fed followed the policy that worked well since the early 1980. 4. 0. 2 Global Imbalances. The recent financial crisis happens when there is much liquidity in world capital markets. It is due to the large payment imbalances between the main countries and regions in the world economy.Global imbalances occur when there is huge and continuing current account deficit in the United States. The current account deficit is financed by plenty of flows of capital from emerging and oil exporting countries. As the consequences, the global imbalances encourage financial activity that would not be effective in long time without the development of deep global financial markets. High levels of global liquidity happens when countries such as China built up current account surpluses and foreign exchange reserves, maintaining artificially low exchange rates and a positive saving investment balance.Because of this liquidity level, global real interest rates fell which contribu ted to credit expansion and rising asset prices that drives to the crisis. 4. 0. 3 Credit Boom. Credit boom happens when banks and mortgage brokers encouraged mortgage sales because they earned fees in proportion to the volume of mortgages they wrote. Banks earned large fees by securitizing mortgages, selling them to capital markets in forms of mortgage backed securities (MBS) and collateral debt obligations (CDO). Since banks distributed these mortgages to capital markets as asset backed securities, it has low risk upon the process.Compared to corporate bonds that had low interest rate during the time, these complex and risky products is highly demanded by institutional investors such as hedge fund and insurance companies. Mortgage sales expanded even to those who could not afford them as the banks only focused on earned large fees. When the housing price bubble evaporated or interest rates rose it turned out to be large defaults. Home sales peaked in late 2005 meanwhile home const ruction spending and housing prices decline in early 2006. When the subprime mortgage crisis started in 2007, the entire market began to collapse.The crisis began in the United States, but because the mortgage based financial products has been spread around the world it soon became global financial crisis. 4. 0. 4 Asset Bubble. Another factor to the financial crisis is an asset bubble that leads to unsustainable leverage. Before the start of the crisis, the U. S government implemented a public policy that encourages homeownership. Because of low interest rate, it has led to mortgage lending and households were encouraged by the banks to borrow causing asset (house) price to increase.The borrowing is allowed up to the full value of their property with little regard to their ability to service the debt. Borrowing is encouraged because of the low interest rate made by monetary policy makers. The demand for housing is related to money market interest rates. Thus, the accommodative polic y conducted by the Federal Reserve contributed to the build up of housing demand and asset prices. The term sub-prime mortgage come when lending activities is also approved to people who did not meet the credit requirements that may default to payments. 4. 0. 5 Financial Innovation.Usually, banks and other agents innovate to avoid regulation and boost returns by taking greater risks. When asset prices increase more rapidly, innovation also accelerates as expected gains grow larger. The main innovation is the process of securitization. This complex ‘securitized’ pools of loans promising high returns with low risk. Thus, in the United States, ballooning mortgage loans to riskier borrowers provided the basis for an ever-larger inverted pyramid of structured products. As the housing prices increasing, lenders provide mortgage lending easily.However the mortgage were securitised, that is repackaged and sold as financial instruments to investors for immediate cash. This led t o excessive and irresponsible mortgage lending. The institutions that originated the mortgages such as commercial banks, savings and loans eventually did not holding the mortgages because it has been sold to investors by the investment banks. This innovation has caused massive distortions in incentives and risk management in the financial organizations. It was an instrumental in strengthen the increase in leverage.Starting in 2003, banks involve rapidly in financing activities, investments and hedging operations that hard to assess risks. When asset prices began to fall, financial organization brought down together and spread panic among investors worldwide. This development has caused massive distortions in incentives and risk management arrangements within financial organizations. 5. 0 Impact of Financial Crisis 5. 0. 1 Impact to U. S Financial System. The U. S government has closed 22 banks including Lehman Brothers, Washington Mutual and Indymac.Other than that, it has rescued F reddie Mac, Fannie Mae, Bear Stearns and created a bailout fund around $700 billion to purchase stakes in effected banks. This step is taken in order to restore confidence in the financial markets. However, this $700 billion Troubled Asset Relief Programme (TARP) failed to restore market confidence. Nearly $8. 5 trillion or around 60% of its gross domestic product has been committed by the U. S government to prevent the collapse of its financial system. 5. 0. 2 Economic Growth Rates. The effect of 2007 crisis can be seen clearly on the downturn economic growth globally.As shown in Figure 1, countries in the world are experiencing a downturn in economic activity as the effect of financial crisis. These declines in economic activity have been followed by losses of trillions of dollars in equity markets and a credit squeeze that are affecting households and businesses worldwide. Financing activities such as world trade and oil exploration has been slow during the time of crisis. As sho wn in chart 2 below, real growth rate measured by GDP across the world has been decreased. Real growth rate in reported by the World Bank is 3. 9% in 2007 dropped to 1. 3% in 2008.As the crisis became worsen, economic growth dropped much lower rate to -2. 2% in 2009. The U. S economy has a large proportion in world economy therefore it has slightly similar trend in the growth rate. The U. S real growth rate in 2007 is 1. 9% dropped to -0. 4% and -3. 5% in 2008 and 2009 respectively. Chart 2: GDP – real growth rate (%) Source: Adapted from World Bank data 5. 0. 3 Personal Finances of US Citizens. People have struggled to repay their debts as the direct consequences of the financial practices that produced the crisis. The value of house dropped dramatically for individuals who owned house before the crisis broke out.This caused some people repaying mortgages that are worth more than the current value of their house. Eventually, many people ended up losing the house that they bo ught in years before the crisis broke out. There were high rates of foreclosure in some area of the United States as borrowers cannot repay the loans. Other than that, individuals in the US also suffered from the loss of growth and income that their savings and investments would have produced. This is because interest rates for savings have dropped sharply. Investors and companies experiencing losses as the stock in many companies dropping rapidly.Retirement plans that are usually based on mutual funds and performance of the stock market results not as they had planned as the stock market crashed. They may need to work longer or retirement plans is less than expected before. Moreover, it has become more difficult to borrow money. While expensive loan services have been expanded, people find it hard to obtain low cost loans or credit cards. 5. 0. 4 High Unemployment Rate. The US gross domestic product which is the total amount of goods and services produced by the country was reduced as the effect of the crisis.Companies in the country struggled to cope with the crisis, however lots of people have lost their jobs. Based on chart 3, the uneployment rate grew from 4. 7% in 2006 to 10% in 2010 which was the highest rate in the last few decades. In addition to lose income, unemployment made it worse for many people because it has become difficult to find new job. Many companies are not willing to hire new employer and even a fresh graduates have to compete to find employment. This become a serious problem for many young citizens in the country. Chart 3: Unemployment rate in the US Source:Adapted from U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 5. 0. 5 Impact on the IMF The damage caused by the financial crisis is a challenge for the IMF. This is because, its financial resource is not in line with the global economy over the past decade. The United States and other advanced industrial economies are at the center of the crisis. However, the IMF would not have enough resources to provide financial assistance if these countries seek for help. Therefore, the IMF resources need to be increase or the risk would become worse in the future. 6. 0 Policy Response 6. 0. 1 Term Auction Facility (TAF).The Term Auction Facility is introduced in December 2007 so that banks can borrow from the Fed easily. Thus the banks can bid directly for funds from the Fed. This is because investors are not willing to lend when afraid about the condition of many financial institutions affected by the crisis. Consequently bank funding markets were put under severe pressure. The main objective of the TAF was to reduce the spreads in the money markets and in that way increase the flow of credit and lower interest rates. As a result, the TAF helped by encouraging the distribution of liquidity when bank funding markets were under stress.The spread between the London interbank offered rate (Libor) and the overnight indexed swap (OIS) for loans of one-month maturity or longer increased to un usually high levels in the late 2007. It is believed that the increase in the Libor–OIS spread is caused by the heightened risk perceived by investors at the time. Since Libor affects interest rates on a wide variety of loans and securities (for example, home mortgages and corporate loans), the sudden spike in the spread was disruptive to the debt market and negatively affected the economy.The chart 4 and the table below also showed six announcements related to the TAF program. Chart 4: The TAF facility provided term funding through periodic auctions to eligible depository institutions. By providing term funds to banks at regularly scheduled auctions, the TAF may have assured lenders of continued access to future funding and thereby reduced their uncertainty regarding anticipated funding needs. The TAF was a facility designed by the Federal Reserve during the crisis to improve liquidity conditions in various asset markets that is crucial to improve short term funding market. . 0. 2 Economic Stimulus Act 2008. The Economic Stimulus Act 2008 is a response made by the government through several package totalling over $100 billion to individuals and families in the United States. The economic stimulus is designed to boost the U. S economy and prevent further recession. In this programme, the government provide tax rebates to low and middle income taxpayers and tax incentives to stimulate business investment. The purpose of the incentives is that the people will have more money to spend thus increase consumption and the economy.By doing so, the government would expect that it will recover the economy. However it is not as hoped because they spend little although the incentives were given. This can be shown through chart 5. The top line shows personal disposable income increased at the time of rebate. However, the lower line shows consumption did not increase as expected. Chart 5: Increase in income 6. 0. 3 Initial Cuts in Interest Rate. The third policy resp onse to the crisis is sharp reduction in the federal funds rate. When the crisis began in August 2007, the rate was 5. 25% and went down to 2% in April 2008 due to the cut.The lower interest rate then reduced the size of adjustable rate mortgage that was cause of the crisis. The most significant effect of this response is the depreciation of dollar and rise in oil price. In the early 2008, oil price increased almost two fold from $70 per barrel in 2007 to over $140 per barrel. High oil price hit the economy as gasoline price increased dramatically and automobile sales plunged. On the other side, the policy reduction in the federal funds rate that cuts interest rate helped raise oil and other commodity prices thus prolonged the crisis. Exchange rate also has influence to the rise of oil price.As shown in chart 6, reduction of the federal funds rate at top line in July 2007 drives the oil price at the bottom line upward until July 2008. Chart 6: Cut in interest rate and increase in oi l price 7. 0 IMF Response to the Crisis The main role of the IMF is to identify the risks that threaten global economic and financial stability and to develop policy responses. The IMF has a worldwide membership and its mandate is to promote economic and financial stability. It is has been provide forum for discussion of international economic issues and help to reach solution on policy responses.In response to the financial crisis, the IMF boosted their lending to developing countries to help them cope with the crisis and to sustain the economic recovery. To meet ever increasing financing needs of countries hit by the global financial crisis and help strengthen global economic and financial stability, the Fund has greatly expanding its lending capacity since the start of the global crisis. It has done so both by obtaining commitments to increase quota subscriptions of member countries and securing large temporary borrowing agreements from member countries, including recent pledges of $456 billion.Countries affected by the crisis can borrow funds from the IMF. Other than that, there is also debate about reforming the IMF. The reformation issues focus on the need to balance the traditional functions of providing short-term financial assistance and promoting external balance stability in member countries. To achieve the objective, there is a need for a wider responsibility of crisis prevention, supporting financially for countries that, although not suffering actual reserve shortage, are in danger of external shocks and liquidity runs. This measure would prevent more severe impact to member countries as the effect of financial crisis.Since year 2008, the Fund has introduced effective instruments to prevent sudden falls in investors’ trust and the eruption of liquidity crises. As a result, borrowers were able to cope with the global crisis, avoiding large scale banking crises and disruptive exchange rate movements and protecting social spending. To prevent the crisis, the IMF has lending arrangements signed by the IMF and low and middle-income countries during the crisis. These lending arrangements take part from January 2008 and June 2010. The size of the loan arranged by the IMF is larger for country that is more exposed to the crisis especially for large country.As a result this measure can prevent more severe contagion of the crisis to other countries. 8. 0 Conclusion The U. S. economy has suffered a few major shocks in recent years during the crisis. At the start, these shocks include a large declining in house prices and a spike in the prices of oil and other commodities. The decline in house prices reduced the value of mortgage backed securities. Because of leverage, this threatened the ability of many of financial institutions, including major investment banks. These shocks have combined to put the U. S. conomy and many economies throughout the world into a global financial crisis and a deep recession. It is likely the worse since the Great Depression in 1930sRegulatory failure is a main responsibility for the crisis. It is shown that weak regulatory in the financial system leaving the consumers inadequately protected. To cope with this crisis, the IMF had played an effective role. It has come out with a financial assistance by providing loan arrangements to the member countries. However, the financial crisis of 2007 therefore raises doubts in faith of the world financial system and in free enterprise.The financial system has to take appropriate measures and reform to improve the situation in the future. 9. 0 References Acharya, V. V. , Philippon, T. , Richardson, M. , & Roubini, N. (2009). The Financial Crisis of 2007-2009: Causes and Remedies. Barrell, R. , & Davis , P. E. (t. t). The Evolution of the Financial Crisis of 2007-8. National Institute of Economic and Social Research. Blundell-Wignall, A. , Atkinson, P. , & Lee , S. H. (2008). The Current Financial Crisis: Causes and Policy Issues. Financi al Market Trends OECD, 1-21. Campello, M. , Graham, J. , & Harvey, C.R. (2009). The Real Effects of Financial Constraints: Evidence from a Financial Crisis. NBER Working Paper Series. Carmassi, J. , Gros, D. , & Micossi, S. (2009). The Global Financial Crisis: Causes and Cures. Journal of Common Market Studies, 47(5), 997-996. Cecchetti, S. G. (2009). Crisis and Responses: The Federal Reserve in the Early Stages of the Financial Crisis. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 23(1), 51-75. Crotty, J. (2008). Structural Causes of the Global Finacial Crisis: A Critical Assessment of the ‘New Financial Architecture. Didapatkan dari http://scholarwork. mass. edu/econ_workingpaper Driehaus, R. H. (2010). The Crisis of 2008 and Financial Reform. Qualitative Research in Financial Markets, 2(3). doi:10. 1108/17554171011091728 Goodhart, C. A. (t. t). The Regulatory Response to the Financial Crisis. 2009. Didapatkan dari http://hdl. handle. net/10419/26302 Hellwig, M. (2008). Systematic Risk in the Financial Sector: An Analysis of the Subprime-Mortgage financial Crisis. Ivan, P. (2008). Financial Crisis 2008. Saw Centre Financial Studies No. 5. Merrouche, O. , ; Nier, E. (2010). What Caused the global Financial Crisis? Evidence on the Drivers of Financial Imbalances 1997 – 2007. IMF Working Paper. Mishkin, F. S. (1999). Global Financial Instability: Framework, Events, Issues. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 13(4), 3-20. Didapatkan dari http://links. jstor. org/sici? sici=0895-3309%28199923%2913%3A4%3C3%3AGFIFFEI%3E2. 0. CO%3B2-D Obstfeld, M. , ; Rogoff, K. (2009). Global Imbalances and the Financial Crisis: Products of Common Causes. Reinhart, C. M. , ; Rogoff, K. S. (2009). The Aftermath of Financial Crises. NBER Working Paper Series. Rogoff, K. (1999).International Institutions for Reducing Global Financial Instability. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 13(4), 21-42. Didapatkan dari http://links. jstor. org/sici? sici=0895-3309%28199923%2913%3A4%3C21%3AII FRGF%3E2. 0. CO%3B2-3 Sanford, J. E. , ; Weiss, M. A. (2009). The Global Financial Crisis: Increasing IMF Resources and the Role of Congress. Congressional Research Service, 1-19. Sikka, P. (2009). Financial crisis and the silence of the authors. doi:10. 1016/j. aos. 2009. 01. 004 Taylor, J. B. (t. t). The Financial Crisis and the Policy Respenses: An Empirical Analysis of What Went Wrong. 2008.

Verbal and Nonverbal Skills Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Verbal and Nonverbal Skills - Research Paper Example the methods utilized for communication, content of the message, and frequency of the message and also the skills utilized to communicate the information. In other words, business relationships are quite different from traditional relationships since the hierarchy of organization alongside other factors place responsibility and accountability on certain individuals. Also, workplace ethics require communication of verbal as well as non-verbal communication in a closed setting where message needs to be communicated in a formal as well as in a non-formal manner. However, to reduce misinterpretations, a culture of effective communication needs to be developed where the employees and subordinated feel as comfortable while expressing their grievances as the management feels while communicating orders. Thus, this paper will aim at explaining how a workplace can be turned into a conductive environment where the efficiency enhances via two-way communication. Firstly, the method of communication has a deep impact on the workplace environment since how you communicate the message is more important than the actual message being communicated. It must be understood by the communication experts in the organization that one method of communication may not suit everyone. Thus, it is important to understand diversity and culture values of the employees and even the management. Furthermore, complicated tools and methods for communicating messages must be avoided. In other words the message must be constructed that it must be clear and simple, and yet sensitive to the cultural diversity in the workplace. Sometimes, pictorial tools may be used to better communicate the message so that it may be understood by everyone. Also, two-way communication must always be encouraged since that helps understand complex ideas and scenarios for better decision making in the future. Also, the employees must be given enough liberty and space to ask

Employee Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Employee Relations - Essay Example factory employers. He also used to pursue other workers in favor of his masters. That is why the other workers did not like him. He after some time lost his one finger in an accident during his work in the factory. After that the masters did not bother to help him. Then he decided to agree on with other workers in the protest against the factory owners. The union of the workers did not exactly wanted to get what the majority of the workers are trying hard to achieve during strike. He was eventually fired from his job due to his conflict with the masters as well as the union of the laborers. After some time when the conflict was sorted out in a decent manner, his job was again given to him. In this movement we see the roles of the workers are transformed during the strike. They were actually the cause of reduced supply of products to the market no matter what the products are in this case. This shortage of supply eventually leads to inflation in the market and the innocent people suff er. This is a negative role prescribed to workers in the market. In the example above, it is clear that the purpose of workers were not actually the same as that of the union of laborers. This evidence shows that the union member’s purpose was somewhat different and hence some kind of political influence and affiliation seemed to be present working efficiently here. The purpose was not exactly the same in most of the cases in the world. For example, according to a study made by Shri Ram Centre for Industrial and Human Resources, the laborers in Punjab wanted to settle down their matters silently by directly talking to the responsible authorities (Prakash, 2006, 91-109). In this way, the conflict due to the strikes can avoided between employers and employees. But the conflict is caused by the union itself often for some personal or political influences. Moreover, strikes only leads to destruction due to the stubborn behavior of the both parties. The laborers lose their jobs as in the above example and eventually suffer. On the other hand the owners of the organization also suffer due to having no work due to the strikes of the workers. The management also does not act according to its responsibilities at the time of strike and due to this irresponsive behavior political elements can get benefit of this situation. If the products produced have a few competitors in the market, it may lead the market towards monopoly. So this political influence can be caused by the close competitor of the organization in which the workers are striking. The relationship between the employers and the workers can be better due to the strike but the exact inverse is also possible. If the conflict is handled in a decent and effective manner, this will be the cause of greater trust from both the sides because the demands from both sides were equally treated. On the other hand, this situation may be worse if the conflict is not handled responsibly. This can lead to a more intense strike from the workers. For example, in the above case the workers were fired due to the strike going on because of the unprofessional behavior of the people sitting in the factory administration. The same example can be taken from another strike in the Johnson steel strike of 1919 where the authorities called the police during the strike of workers. Police were arresting

What is the role of mass media in liberal democracies Do you think the Essay

What is the role of mass media in liberal democracies Do you think the media fulfil these functions (Base your answer on liberal theory and the political econ - Essay Example But, evidence from electronic and print media today reveals that the media houses have largely failed to live up to their defined roles. This essay will expound on this thesis by way of citing relevant examples from scholarly sources. One of the talking points amongst the intelligentsia is the dangers posed by lack of diversity and representation in the mainstream media’s coverage. The phenomena of media concentration, which has seen greater consolidation in the last decade, gives rise to production of news content that serves the interests of select media elite. This concentration of power in the hands of large media conglomerates makes it easy for them to set the political agenda on the national scale as exemplified by Rupert Murdoch’s near monopoly ownership of media space in Britain. It is no surprise then that the issues that they cover are infested with their personal biases, prejudices and interests. The general public, made helpless by this system, are presented a narrow political agenda that holds no real significance for them (Eldridge, Kitzinger & Williams, 1997, p. 27). In other words, while the media has the power to elicit a policy response from the government, the outcomes tend to ben efit the media elite and ruling classes rather than people. Only a few news stories get picked for publication/broadcast among numerous other pieces competing for the same space/time. The journalists in charge of deciding the news content are subject to personal biases, external coercions (both implicit and explicit) and other constraints that influence their decision making. For these reasons, there are only a minority of journalists who adhere to standards of objectivity and professional integrity, while the rest succumb to various pressures consciously or otherwise. This decline in journalistic ethos is seen across geo-political entities and cultures,

The Constitution a Controversial Document Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Constitution a Controversial Document - Essay Example The paper tells that the constitution was drafted after a successful civil revolt from the British rule in 1787. It was the result of a highly successful collaborative effort composed of leaders of high repute and regard from the original founding 13 colonies of our great American nation. However, the fact that it was created by representatives from 13 colonies in itself was already a controversial idea and, at the time, few thought it would succeed. It was because of the various thoughts, mindsets, and vested interests in the new country that the Constitution was eventually seen, even though the 13 states had agreed upon its content, as a controversial document as it was being written. Â  Since the constitution was created during an era when there was no technology such as the internet or 24 hour news television to show the public what was going on between the 55 state delegates during the drafting of the constitution, we only recently came to understand how the process was actuall y quite divisive and could have resulted in a civil war between the states soon after the war against Britain ended. That is because in an atmosphere that combined competitive, lively debate with tolerance and respect for differences of opinion, the delegates reached vital compromises on matters that threatened to divide the still loosely connected union of states. Many different factions opposed one another—small states versus large states, farmers versus businesspeople, North versus South, and slave states versus non-slave states.

Media reporting and child sexual abuse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Media reporting and child sexual abuse - Essay Example The United Nation’s 1959 Declaration of the Rights of the Child states that the child needs special care and protection including appropriate legal protection due to his physical and mental immaturity before and after birth. In the UK, children and young people are offered protection by two important pieces of legislation: the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Human Rights Act 1998.There have been plentiful and varied challenges involving children and young people, in particular under Article 8 of the Human Rights Act(Curtice and Tim,2010,p.361). The Children, Schools and Families Bill has taken some initiatives concerning publishing the family proceedings information. The measures are subject to controversy as there is need to strike the right balance between right of press to report court proceeding under Article 10 ECHR and right to privacy and its respect for children under Article 8 ECHR in addition to their best interest under the UN Convention on the Righ ts of the Child. Relaxation of limitation on media reporting of family proceeding has raised concerns over limiting children rights and providing them insufficient protection (JCHR, 2010). According to media laws, accredited journalists are permitted to observe family court proceedings; however, they are under strict reporting regulations that allow certain level of details for print. The limitation of print reporting are imposed in order to ensure privacy and well-being of children involved in the cases (Silk, 2009).Furthermore, according to Justice Secretary, Jack Straw (cited in Silk, 2009) the limitation will be relaxed in an effort to convey the case substance while children identity and lurid details about family must not be published. The modifications will permit the publication of expert witness reports, including those incorporating details of child abuse. The relaxation will ensure transparency in family justice system and increased public confidence on its services. The legislation has broaden the amount of information that can be reported which include child or parent’s medical, psychological, or psychiatric details in addition to the   information given by a child to his or her parents. It permits the publication of information regarding the case which is not â€Å"personal sensitive information† but the limitations are not clearly defined. The act ensures that names and identities of parties involved remain hidden to maintain lifelong anonymity of children (Baksi, 2010). Recently, numerous high-profile celebrities have accused media of intruding into their privacy during their cases in UK. Most cases are reported against the stories by ‘kiss-and-tell’ tabloids and photographs taken by freelance paparazzi. For instance, celebrity footballer David Bekham and pop star Victoria Bekham and members of British monarchy consistently tried to limit press interference into their personal lives (Drake, 2007, p.220). Apparently, Privacy limitations seems to be defined clearly, however, there is no statute in either English or Scottish law that can be attributed as Privacy Act. In addition, the publicity or personality rights are also not evident. Contrary to defamation or copyright laws, under no specific law we can hold some newspaper responsible for intruding into any individual’s or celebrity’s privacy. This scenario has led to extending the existing legislation in order to contain privacy related cases and to establish the concept in English law courts (Drake, 2007, p.220). Lacking legislation triggered the attempts to define privacy in UK AND Calcutt Committee defined it as â€Å"the right of the individual to be protected against intrusion to his personal life or affairs, or those of his family, direct physical means or by publication of information† (1990, p.7 cited in Drake, 2007, p.221). Absence of a general law for privacy led to the utilization of common law in such cases. I t includes; the 1998 Data Protection Act, 1997

Criminal Justice Management Information System Research Paper

Criminal Justice Management Information System - Research Paper Example Criminal justice system information is critical in influencing how people are treated in the system, and may have a bearing on the outcome of the individual cases. The quantity, quality, and timeliness of information are crucial to the operations of the criminal justice system. Moreover, a criminal justice system indicates a significant interrelationship between efficiency and the quality of the justice dispensed. The automated systems provide a one-time entry of data and an efficient access to justice information to all agencies that are in need of it via shared files and system resources, while at the same time restricting unauthorized access to certain criminal history and other confidential information as maybe stipulated by applicable laws and regulations. Criminal justice management systems facilitate multijurisdictional information sharing across the criminal justice system (Allen & Sawhney, 2010). Integration of management information systems demands adoption of common standa rds in data entry, policies, software, protocols, and hardware systems. Management information systems form a critical component of criminal justice system. ... For instance, management information systems such as â€Å"offender management system† impact and interact with organizational development and human behavior. Today, more and more state criminal justice systems employ statewide computing systems to keep track of criminal offenders as well as to enhance rehabilitation. The offender management information systems often employ integrated record tracking from diverse information sources (Welsh & Harris, 2012). The need for criminal justice officers and organizations to share data increases commensurate with the crime. Much of the typical data captured in a criminal justices system often has utility to multiple organizations. One of the essential contributions made by management information system encompasses areas of statistical data analysis models, graphical, and spatial forms of analysis (Siegel, 2010). The stated methodologies demand speed, access, and dimensionality of data, which cannot be facilitated by manual systems. Pote ntial Reasons for Computerization One of the prominent reasons for the introduction of information technology in the administration of criminal justice system revolves around the ability of the system to enhance the quality and the timelines of information; this leads to enhanced decision making. Furthermore, higher quality information translates into better information for policy analysis, besides availing timely information. As a result, there is increased system efficiency of the criminal justice system. Manual systems hinder attainment of high quality, timely, and accurate information. Moreover, as the society and the nature of crime become increasingly complicated, the need for structured

The Beginning of Civil Rights Movement in the U.S. Essay Example for Free

The Beginning of Civil Rights Movement in the U.S. Essay â€Å"Being a Negro in America means trying to smile when you want to cry. It means trying to hold on to physical life amid psychological death. It means the pain of watching your children grow up with clouds of inferiority in their mental skies. It means having their legs off, and then being condemned for being a cripple.1† These were the words of Martin Luther King Jr.. For nearly 80 years after being freed from slavery, African-Americans suffered under the discrimination and segregation of their fellow Americans. After World War II, African-Americans were ready for change and the nation could feel the inevitable Civil Rights Movement coming. With nonviolence and motivation the Civil Rights wheels were set in motion led by determined leaders and brave youth, which would have a permanent effect on American society. After the Civil War ended on June 22nd, 1865 and the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced in the last states that still had slaves. With the passing of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, African-Americans had for the first time in history the privileges of citizenship and the right to vote. Unfortunately, with the withdrawal of federal troops from the South, the situation for African-Americans, all across the nation, would only deteriorate until the Civil Rights Movement starting in 1954, keeping most African-Americans unable to vote making them â€Å"economically and politically powerless†.2 Many unsuccessful attempts for civil rights, unsupportive presidents, and violence from groups like the Ku Klux Klan made Civil Rights progress nearly impossible for nearly 80 years, even under the support from organizations such as the NAACP. African-Americans had to abide by Black Codes and Jim Crow laws in many parts of America and faced daily discrimination. Segregation under Black Codes and Jim Crow laws became a part of daily life for African-Americans all over America. The â€Å"separate but equal† reasoning was backed by the US Supreme court in the Plessy v. Ferguson case after a Louisiana Law stated that railroads must provide â€Å"equal but separate accomm odations for the white, and colored, race.†3 African-Americans tried to push Civil Rights on different occasions such as  World War II, where the idea of a â€Å"Double V† (spreading democracy abroad and at home for African Americans) began after James G. Thompson wrote a letter to the Pittsburgh Courier in 1942; â€Å"let colored Americans adopt the double VV for a double victory.†4 Though somewhat successful with the passing of the Fair Employment Act, most consider the Civil Rights Movement to begin after the Brown v. Board of Education case5 in 1954, ruling segregated schooling unconstitutional. The Brown v. Board of Education was a major step in the Civil Rights Movement. One of the first attempts to integrate a school in Little Rock, Arkansas received national attention after the nine black students who were selected to join a previously white high school were met by an angry mob. President Eisenhower had to send troops in just so that these students could go to school unharmed, a headliner that shocked the nation.6 This would not be the only violent reaction to the Civil Rights Movement. The majority of Civil Rights activists, though, believed in nonviolence.7 Martin Luther King Jr., a leader in the Civil Rights Movement who was a supporter of nonviolence, said, â€Å"Nonviolence is a powerful and just weapon. It is a sword that heals. (It) cuts without wounding and ennobles the man who wields it.†8 This nonviolent approach to Civil Rights could be seen in the way African-Americans used Buses to break down segregation; both in the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955 and the Freedom Rides in 1961. Claudette Colvin was 15 years old when she was arrested for refusing to move to the black section of a bus. Nine months later, a more famous bus arrest happened to Rosa Parks. Martin Luther King Jr. saw the opportunity to start a mass boycott coordinated the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), of which he was president of.9 The boycott lasted 13 months and was a major success, when bus segregation was abolished in Montgomery. This proved that peaceful methods could be used to successfully achieve change for Civil Rights. Another popular nonviolent method of civil disobedience were the â€Å"Sit-ins.† One famous â€Å"sit-in† was lead by the â€Å"Greensboro Four† a group of four African-American college students who sat at the lunch counter of a segregated store, sparking a wave of similar sit-ins around the country.10 The nonviolent mindset of many Civil Rights activists was often not reflected in the resistance they met, particularly in Southern states. The Freedom Rides of 1961 were originally led by thirteen college students, seven black and six white, who tr aveled with  interstate Greyhound buses from the North to the South to defy the segregated busing system and segregation at the interstate transportation facilities.11 As the movement grew in numbers and recognition, so did the violence that met them when the buses rolled into the South. Angry white mobs, mainly made up of KKK members, threw firebombs and beat and tortured the students as they stumbled out of the burning buses. As media caught wind of this and images began circulating, the nation was shocked. The eventual desegregation on the interstate buses was pushed in most part by the newly elected President John F. Kennedy and his brother, the Attorney General, Robert Kennedy.12 In the election of 1960, the two candidates were Richard Nixon for the Republican Party and John F. Kennedy for the Democratic Party, though he was part of a more liberal part of the Democratic party, causing much of the South to be somewhat hesitant in their support.13 The election ended up being one of the closest elections of US history, and Kennedy won mainly due to the first-ever televised presidential debate. Kennedy was good-looking, and charismatic whereas Nixon was nervous and sweating; unprepared for the media.14 He appointed his brother, Attorney General shortly thereafter. P resident Kennedy was a supporter of civil rights, but had to choose between the support of the South and his belief in civil rights, so he started taking only small steps towards progress. His brother was also a supporter of Civil Rights and helped by integrating the government. Many Civil Rights activists, who were hoping Kennedys would kick the Civil Rights Movement into motion were disappointed by the slow process. Kennedy changed his cautious approach after violence escalated in the town of Birmingham, Alabama as a result of a peaceful protest led by Martin Luther King Jr. The Birmingham Campaign of 1963 was located in Birmingham, Alabama, considered at the time to be â€Å"America’s most segregated city.† Martin Luther King Jr. took up the challenge of desegregating this town believing that if he could successfully desegregate the town of Birmingham, he could desegregate any town in America. A court order was obtained by the city against the protests, though Martin Luther King Jr., along with the other leaders of the movement decided to disobey the order and continue. King was arrested and kept in solitary confinement for eight days.15 The campaign leader came up with the idea to bring young people and even children into the protest, representing innocent and pure intentions of  young Civil Rights activists.16 On May 2nd, thousands of young people protested and hundreds were arrested. Images of policemen clubbing, shooting with high powered hoses, and releasing dogs on the youth flooded the media, causing once again, a very outraged nation. Pressure mounted on the government and President Kennedy. Kennedy, who had only been dipping his feet in the Civil Rights Movement until that moment, now cannonballed his way into full-fledged support of Civil Rights after giving a very clear message in his Civil Rights Address on June 11th, 1963, â€Å"The events in Birmingham and elsewhere have so increased the cries for equality that no city or State or legislative body can prudently choose to ignore them.†17 In this speech he also declared that he was going to propose an act allowing all Americans to use public facilities without facing discrimination or segregation, continuing the integration of schools, and other features, such as more protection for voters. This would be known as the Civil Rights Act, and would be passed by President Lyndon Johnson in 1964. Though the government had proved supportive in this case, many in the government tried to suppress the Civil Rights Movement, such as J. Edgar Hoover, the director of the FBI from 1924 to 1972. Many of the direct attacks on the Civil Rights Movement came from groups like the Ku Klux Klan and policemen, but the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover led a much more invasive attack on the movement and Dr. King in particular. J. Edgar Hoover was a white supremacist with no sympathy for Civil Rights and spent much of his time trying to discredit the movement and Dr. King. Even as the Red Scare died down in the 1950’s, being accused of communism or affiliations with communism was often a serious blow to a person’s career and reputation.18 The FBI and J. Edgar Hoover were also responsible for investigations against communist activities. Hoover used an allegation of communism to keep Martin Luther King Jr. and the movement under constant investigation and surveillance. He used tapes of Kennedy affairs as blackmail, so that President Kennedy would allow him to wiretap King’s phones in October 1963. What he found though, were not communist activities, but affairs King had. T he FBI then mailed the tapes to him, encouraging him to commit suicide to spare him public embarrassment.19 The FBI continued investigating King even after the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, when the FBI’s responsibility of investigating crimes against civil rights greatly increased.20 After King spoke out against the Vietnam War in  1967, the FBI saw this as proof that he was being influenced by communist advisers. However when Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated, the FBI launched a successful investigation finding his killer. Martin Luther King Jr.’s most famous speech, â€Å"I have a dream,† was given at the March on Washington on August 28th, 1963, the largest peaceful rally of the time with around 250,000 people of all ages, races, and walks of life. The march had been planned in 1941 by A. Philip Randolph for equality in the jobs market, but never happened after Randolph threatened the 100,000 strong march to President Roosevelt and Roosevelt passed the Fair Employment Act.21 The event was sponsored by numerous organizations and people. There were also a variety of speakers (among them a rabbi representing the overwhelming proportion of Jewish supporters of the civil rights movement22) and musicians including Bob Dylan.23 The most memorable moment, was of course, the speech of Martin Luther King Jr. towards the end of the event. This historical speech was not only on Civi l Rights, but also of the dream that King had of a nation where blacks and whites would live together in friendship and acceptance. 24 After the historical march, King and other Civil Rights leaders met with President Kennedy and Vice President Lyndon Johnson to discuss the necessity the complete support of Civil Rights.25 Some of the terms discussed in the aftermath of the March on Washington were reflected the the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act after Kennedy was assassinated. President Kennedy was the hope and inspiration of many young Americans of the Baby Boomer generation, especially African-Americans. In the midst of campaigning for his second term, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas on November 22nd, 1963 by Lee Harvey Oswald. This stunned the American people and caused a wave confusion and grieving. The resulting mood was one of grief and apprehension of the future of the American government. Kennedy’s vice president was Lyndon B. Johnson, an avid supporter of Civil Rights and social justice, but also known for his â€Å"arm-twisting† methods of getting things through Cong ress and being a drunkard, was somewhat of a love-hate figure of American Politics. He used his questionable methods to push Kennedy’s proposed Civil Rights Act through Congress in 1964. The Act made it illegal for private businesses to discriminate, effectively destroying the Jim Crow system and making Civil Rights crimes a matter of the federal court, not the state court. The act was a huge step forward, but  did not address voting rights. Voting rights were passed in the Voting Rights Act of 1965 after a wave of violence in the town of Selma, Alabama when a nonviolent campaign to register African-American voters led by Martin Luther King Jr. and many Civil Rights leaders marched it’s way from Selma to Montgomery. Things began escalating about a month in on February 2nd, 1965 when a young African-American was shot to death by a state-trooper after trying to protect his mother from the police.26 This sparked the Selma to Montgomery March on March 7th, 1965. The march met a police blockade in Selma with clubs and tear gas and that day became known as â€Å"Bloody Sunday,† sparking national outrage. The march continued and was continually met by police and KKK brutality and added deaths. On August 6th, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act; the events in Selma greatly impacting the act. This is considered the â₠¬Å"political and emotional peak of the American civil rights movement.†27 The movement began to stray from the nonviolent tradition in the late 1960’s and especially after Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on April 4th, 1968. Many African-Americans in the North felt left out from the successes of the Civil Rights. The suburb culture of the 1950’s and 60’s led to a flood of rich white Americans moving out of the cities, leaving the poor African-Americans in the North, stuck in a cycle of poverty and crime. The more militant movement challenging Martin Luther King Jr.’s ideas was led by Malcolm X, formally part of the Nation of Islam. He promoted the idea of black pride and that African-Americans should defend themselves against white aggression.28 Malcolm X was assassinated in 1965, but his ideas of black pride led to the Black Power movement, empowering African-Americans and instilling a sense of pride among them. Unfortunately it also promoted a very â€Å"macho† culture, which was not very women’s rights friendly. Many consider the Civil Rights Movement to have ended in 1968, and may believe that racism is a thing of the past and that this generation has learned, as Martin Luther King Jr. said, â€Å"not be judge by the color of their skin but by the conte nt of their character.†29 Unfortunately, discrimination for many minorities is a very real part of their life in America today. There is statistical data showing that problems like discrimination in the workplace30, wealth gaps between races31, and disproportionately high crime and incarceration rates for minorities exist. A study done in 2000 to 2002, showed that most employers called back  applicants with resumes with white-sounding names (versus black-sounding names) more often than not.32 Nonwhite families earned approx. 65% of what white families earned in 2012.33 This gap between whites and minorities is a battle still being fought today. Many believe that the minorities are also unrepresented in the government, thus hindering any major progress for minorities. The Civil Rights movement was a movement against hundreds of years of oppression and discrimination. It was a movement that swept the country and changed the culture and politics of America forever, led by determined, courageous leaders whose names will always be remembered. It opened the economic, political, and social doors that African-Ameri cans had never had the privilege to explore in the days of segregation and discrimination. Though racism will probably always be present in some form, the impact of the civil rights movement was a necessary and undeniable step for all of mankind.